Agnosticism : The agnostic’s conception of nation is materialistic throughout. The entire world is, according to them, governed by law, and absolutely excludes the intervention of action from without. But, they add, we have no means either of ascertaining or of disproving the existence of some supreme being beyond the known universe. Agnostics admit that all our knowledge is based upon the information imported to us by our senses. But, they add, how do we know that our senses give us correct representation of the objects we perceive through them? Thus, as far as they claim to know anything they are materialists and in spheres about which they know nothing, they are idealists. According to them, one may correctly perceive the qualities of a thing, (i.e. its taste, colour, smell etc.), but can not correctly perceive by any sensible or mental process so as to grasp the thing-in-itself. Though this philosophy came into existence in 3rd and 4th centuries in Greece (Anecidemus), but it was Kant (1724-1804) and Hume (1711-76) who revived it. Positivists of later period developed this theory.
Positivism : In the decade of 1840, positivism came to being as a philosophical trend against French materialism and atheism. According to this trend, the main task of scientific thought is to collect facts acquired through “pure experience” and to generalise them. On the basis of knowledge acquired through our experience on sense-organs, we can not reach any philosophical conclusion whether objective world exists or not, whether matter is primary or secondary. They claim to introduce a third line in philosophy—neither materialist, nor idealist, but superior than both of them. August Comte, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Ernst Mach, Bertrand Russel are among the leading exponents of this philosophy, though in details they differ among themselves too.
Determinism : A form of vulgar mechanical materialism of 18th century. It was the period when modern natural science underwent its first phase of development. Naturally, science at that time was not in a position to explain the dynamic role of nature on the one hand, and could not break the shackles of religion on the other. An outlook thus evolved : Which ever way nature had been created, once created it is not going to change each of its objects have to play a pre-determined role and they can not evade it, rather they had been created to play this role alone. As Wolf has explained, rats have been created only to get devoured by cats, and cats have been created to devour rats. Similarly, this universe has been created, so that the creator may express his intellect. Obviously, this school preaches passivity and opposes all types of mobility forbidding people to try to bring any change in their social life.
Pragmatism : In early 20th century, it developed in USA by William James (1842-1910). For a pragmatist, the correctness of any ‘ism’, belief or theory depends on its effect upon the world, therefore, only effect and experience count importance. They show that since mere belief cures diseases and some people have experiences of gossiping with God, hence the existence of God cannot be challenged. On the other hand, the development of science cannot be ignored too, though certain phenomena could not be explained by it. Hence it could not be taken as completely based on reality. Therefor, it is better to depend upon bare practicability, should accept only that knowledge which can be proved as well as be tested as real, but should not depend on a knowledge based on mere logic. Thus they refute both idealism and materialism and pretend to open the third realistic school. In essence, this school is the new form of mechanical materialism. Its shrewd leanings towards idealism has made it popular among the 20th century imperialists.
Existentialism : A highly individualistic, anarchist philosophical school, whose chief exponent in the present era was Jean Paul-Sartre. It stands for unrestricted development of individual and oppoeses all types of social control and discipline. Since imperialism has ruined the private life of workers, it has destroyed the genuine privacy of general people, therefore, there is genuine aspiration for individual freedom among workers and general masses. So this school of philosophy gained popularity among European youth. But playing on this genuine aspiration, it advances an anarchist theory. Hence, it creates obstacles in building up an organised movement.
“CYCLE” IN PHILOSOPHY
Ancient : Democritus—Plato and Heraclitus’s dialectics.
Renaissance : Descartes vs. Gossendi (Spinoza?)
Modern : Holbauch—Hegel (through Berkeley, Hume, Kant).
Hegel—Feuerbach—Marx.
